Python notes - syntax and language - changes and py2/3

Syntaxish: syntax and language · changes and py2/3 · decorators · importing, modules, packages · iterable stuff · concurrency

IO: networking and web · filesystem

Data: Numpy, scipy · pandas, dask · struct, buffer, array, bytes, memoryview · Python database notes

Image, Visualization: PIL · Matplotlib, pylab · seaborn · bokeh · plotly

Tasky: Concurrency (threads, processes, more) · joblib · pty and pexpect

Stringy: strings, unicode, encodings · regexp · command line argument parsing · XML

date and time

Notebooks

speed, memory, debugging, profiling · Python extensions · semi-sorted

On preparing for and doing the conversion to py3

It is usually easy (but sometimes awkward) to write code that is good for both ~py2.7 and py3k, which was nice preparation for the shift.

2to3 can do most of the syntax for you, but it cannot really think about how you mixed bytestrings and unicode strings - such are the drawback of weak typing when you change your entire language's semantics.

Also, various third party libraries decided to move from bytes by default to unicode by default -- which is effectively an API change it cannot know about.

So you will have to review your code.

At one point I changed all my code to run under py3, to force myself to do all conversions over a weekend.

This was work, but the breaking changes were actually mostly boring, most changes being:

print

sorting, where I wasn't using key= yet

the equivalent key= form is typically obvious

bytes/str around the edges of the app, e.g.
- file IO
- web framework
- database

network library renames

Differences in syntax and behaviour in 2.6, 3k

This article/section is a stub — probably a pile of half-sorted notes, is not well-checked so may have incorrect bits. (Feel free to ignore, or tell me)

NOTE: These are notes to self, basically "things that bit me that I looked up"

Syntax differences

py2.6: as
became a reserved word
py2.6: with
became a reserved word

py3: print() is a function

so print("stuff") instead of print "stuff"

and some tricks (like the comma to omit a newline) changed

more details below

py3: no more backticks, use repr() explicitly

py3: int and long are now (syntactically) the same thing, so you can use int everywhere

py3: Division

In py2

/

coerces to float if it involves a float, e.g. 1/2.0==0.5 (it's not unusual to put float() around variable arguments to ensure you get float division)

stays an int if both arguments were int, e.g. 1/2==0

//

integer division, basically. E.g. 1//2==0

result type is still float if involves a float but the behaviour is no different, e.g. 1//2.0==0.0

In py3

/

always float division, e.g. 1/2==0.5

//

as in py2

Exceptions now always use as , e.g.
except ErrorName as var:

as was possible for a bunch of versions, but the older

except ErrorName, var:

was also still allowed

for more details: http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3110/

py3: no more has_key

The

in

keyword should handle all cases.

py3: no more
g.next()

It was renamed to

g.__next__()

because it's considered an internal method.

your code should probably say

next(g)

rather than either of those.

py3: no more <>, use != instead

py3: you can no longer mix tabs and spaces. Probably a good thing.

py3.6: allows type annotation (see below)

Behaviour/implementation changes

py3: list comprehensions no longer leak their iteration variables

because they are actually functions with their own scope now

py3: more things return an iterator or view, rather than a list (which is nice)
- dict.keys(), dict.items() and dict.values() (and dict.iterkeys(), dict.iteritems() and dict.itervalues() are gone)
- map() and filter() return iterables
- range() acts like the older xrange (and xrange is gone)
- zip returns an iterator

py2 had .next() for iterators, py3 has a next() in syntax

py3: comparisons between types is slightly stricter

less likely to do strange things without warning, and some related details (no maxint, no L in int's repr

TODO: detail

py3: bytestrings / unicode strings are their own topic, see below

buffer, memoryview and such changed.

largely compatible, but some details have changed

if you use them, read up to be sure

py3: has new-style classes only (that is, inherit from object) (no more classic classes)

which most people were using already

Networking changes

Various things have been reorganized, but are largely unchanged::

httplib has been moved to http.client

urllib2 has been moved to mostly into urllib.request and urllib.error

as before, consider things like requests - not standard library, but convenient.

urlparse became urllib.parse

urlencode, quote, quote_plus, unquote moved from urllib to urllib.parse

cgi.escape became html.escape

TODO: I think timeout details were cleaned up(verify)

Py2 versus Py3 string stuff

If you're new to python, maybe just learn the py3 way, and don't read this - there's no point in confusing yourself with both parts of a conflicting change.

Types and literals

The distinctions in py2 and py3 are the same

there's a bytestring

there's a unicode string

What has changed is their names, and which is the default

str

in py2 meant bytestring,

str

in py3 means unicode

put another way, in py2:

str

is bytestring type, a literal looks like

''

unicode

is unicode string type, a literal looks like

u''

and in py3:

bytes

is bytestring type, a literal looks like

b''

str

is unicode string type, a literal looks like

''

Changes in code - conversions

unicode from integer codepoints

py2:

unichr(i)

because chr() returned a bytestring so could only deal with 0..255

py3:

chr(i)

bytestring from integer(s)

py2:

chr(i)

py3:

bytes([i])

If you want "bytes from integers" with syntax that that works in both py2 and py3

you will find that bytes([i]) is valid code in py2 but does something else

there's a duct tape fix in

bytes(bytearray([i]))

, though note it won't be the most efficient (bytearray, since ge;py2.6, is a mutable counterpart to bytes)

text conversions (bytestring-unicode)'

bytes to unicode:

py2:

''.decode(encoding)

py3:

b''.decode(encoding)

unicode to bytes:

py2:

u''.encode(encoding)

py3:

''.encode(encoding)

Note that

converions during initialization are also a thing, e.g.

initialize a bytes object from unicode and an encoding (seems equivalent to str.encode(verify)), e.g.

bytes('something', 'utf-8') == b'something'

initialize a unicode object from bytes and an encoding: (seems equivalent to bytes.decode(verify)), e.g.

str(b'something', 'utf-8') == 'something'

py2 let you .encode() a bytestring (seemed intended for codepage stuff?), this was a somewhat confusing exception,

and py3 does not allow you to .encode a bytes object.

py2 also allowed some byte-to-byte codings, that are now only available via the codecs module:

byte conversions

codecs's codecs.encode() and codecs.decode(), aside from text encodings, also includes bytes-to-bytes things (found only here), including:

'hex' / 'hex_codec'

'base64' (Base64)

'bz2'

'zlib'

'uu' / 'uu_codec' (UUEncoding)

'quopri' / 'quopri_codec' (quoted printable)

Iterating

py2:

list('1234')  == ['1', '2', '3', '4']
list(u'1234') == [u'1', u'2', u'3', u'4']

py3:

list(b'1234') == [49, 50, 51, 52]
list('1234') == ['1', '2', '3', '4']

Coercion

py2:

allowed coercing bytestrings to unicode e.g.

u'\u12d6' + b'foo' == u'\u13d6foo'

py3:

the same raises a TypeError

forces you to be explicit, e.g. doing an encode or decode to work on the same type

While that leads to a little more typing in py3, it's also less fuzzy on responsibilities and less sensitive to typing errors

It also makes it harder to write functions that work on both bytestrings and unicode strings, but that's arguably sort of the point.

print

Brackets

python2 allowed print without brackets

...which was an almost-singular exception in terms of syntax

python3 makes it print(), like all other functions. It's a syntax error not to

it also has some keyword arguments:

end: string appended after the last value, default a newline (allows imitating the py2-comma-at-the-end)

sep: string inserted between values (default a space)

file: output to a file-like object (defaults to sys.stdout)

flush: whether to forcibly flush the stream (default false)

print without newline

py2:

print 'foo',

py3:

print('foo', end='')

If you want something that works in both py2 and py2, use sys.stdout.write()

Sequences and non-string objects

in both py2 and py3, non-string objects will basically be asked for their .__str__()

Note that

py2 with bracket would basically be interpreted as a tuple argument

print(1,2,3,4)

py3 would interpret the same as multiple (non-keyword) arguments -- but typically amount to the same output

print(1,2,3,4)

in py2, the separator was a single space(verify), in py3, it can be specified:

print(1,2,3,4, sep='\t')

in py2, output was to sys.stdout, in py3 you can specify any file-like object

print("WARNING" file=sys.stderr)

e.g. for stderr means you don't have to use its write() instead of print

py2, explicit flushing meant calling sys.stdout.flush(), in py3 you can do:

print(' ', flush=True)

You can get py3 style print() in py2, since py2.6(verify) via

from __future__ import print_function

Unsorted:

≥py2.6 can do
from __future__ import unicode_literals
(verify)

meaning what exactly?

python2 added
bytes
as an alias for str around 2.7

meaning what exactly?

some easing of transition:
- ≥py2.something accepts
  b
  and
  bytes
  , aliased to its str type (bytestring)
- ≥py3.3 accepts
  u
  as an alias for its str (unicode)

Keep in mind that print is geared towards printing (unicode) text, and puts everything through io.TextIOBase

If you want to output raw bytes, you'll basically need sys.stdout.write instead.

Console and locale details

This article/section is a stub — probably a pile of half-sorted notes, is not well-checked so may have incorrect bits. (Feel free to ignore, or tell me)

Remember that

print

is IO that is specifically aimed at the console, so its behaviour depends on the environment,

and it comes with more wrapping code than most other IO.

It will, for example, convert to the locale -- which could fail if that's a codepage or 'ascii'

sys.stdout.encoding is what is set for that specific stream

CHECK: on windows this is now UTF-8 (previously was codepages, behaviour you can still get with PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO ? TODO: read https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0528/

on unices this is based on your locale ([1][2]), which makes sense for console

on a lot of locales it amounts to UTF-8 so will work well and combine well -- but more because of convention, and you may not want to count on this

if it ends up being 'ascii', it's probably the main reason you've seen "'ascii' codec can't encode characters in position ...: ordinal not in range"

...so there are use cases where you want to force it to something (probably UTF-8), like piping programs together.

[3] overrides stdin/stdout/stderr

you can't set it from code - setting it throws an exception http://www.macfreek.nl/memory/Encoding_of_Python_stdout#Overriding_the_Encoding_of_stdout_or_stderr

locale.getpreferredencoding() (for unix-style locales)

...as an indication of what the console uses, but it's basically used for that already

sys.getdefaultencoding()

used for implicit encodings (so more in py2), as a system-wide default and nothing better implied by context

but was 'ascii' on py2 unless overridden -- and there are good (breaky) reasons you never want to do that [4]

seems to often be utf-8 in py3?

sys.getfilesystemencoding()

intended for filenames, command-line arguments, environment variables

often utf-8?

PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING

https://pythonhosted.org/kitchen/unicode-frustrations.html

-->

Paths

Consider pathlib

IO

This article/section is a stub — probably a pile of half-sorted notes, is not well-checked so may have incorrect bits. (Feel free to ignore, or tell me)

network IO and file IO is bytes by nature so often involves either a lot of explicit conversions (or "I'll do everything for you" libraries).

file open()

py2 had file() and open() (The latter is the same as io.open) which did mostly the same thing, but with a somewhat different interface.

py3 has only open()

open() also controls what type read() will give you.

py2:

open() gives bytes

py3:

open() in text mode (without 'b' in the mode): gives unicode

has an encoding parameter, if not specified will default to locale.getpreferredencoding(False), likely but not given to be 'UTF-8'

open() in binary mode (with 'b' in the mode): gives bytes (and specifying encoding will raise ValueError)

subprocess:

py2:

pipes are bytes

subprocess.Popen('ls', stdout=subprocess.PIPE,stderr=subprocess.PIPE).communicate()
('\xe1\x8f\x96\n', )

py3:

pipes are bytes unless you explicitly specify an encoding

subprocess.Popen('ls', stdout=subprocess.PIPE,stderr=subprocess.PIPE).communicate()
(b'\xe1\x8f\x96\n', b)
subprocess.Popen('ls', stdout=subprocess.PIPE,stderr=subprocess.PIPE, encoding='utf8').communicate()
('Ꮦ\n', )

Bytes and strings around file IO

This article/section is a stub — probably a pile of half-sorted notes, is not well-checked so may have incorrect bits. (Feel free to ignore, or tell me)

py3: no more file()

and the built-in 'open() (the synonym file() no longer exists) grew some extra behaviour:
to read/write strings, automatically converted from their encoded form, specify an encoding. The default encoding is platform-dependent, so you probably don't want to rely on that.
to read/write bytes, specify a binary mode, ('rb', 'wb') and don't specify an encoding

On in-memory versions:

StringIO acts like a file opened in text mode,
BytesIO acts like a file opened in binary mode.

misc

b'aa'.decode('hex_codec')

will tell you

LookupError: 'hex_codec' is not a text encoding; use codecs.decode() to handle arbitrary codecs

Instead, probably do (works on unicode and bytes input):

import codecs
codecs.decode(b'aa', 'hex_codec')

Type annotation

See Python_notes_-_syntax_and_language#Type_annotation

StringIO, and now BytesIO

For context / basic use

Python2 had StringIO objects, objects that acted like file objects you could write() bytestrings into.

Is is mostly useful where a function wants to write to file object, but you want to avoid the filesystem, e.g. for speed by avoiding IO, or to avoid potential permission problems.

Example:

sio = StringIO.StringIO()
Image.save(sio)
data = sio.getvalue()

Notes:

you can write(), but you cannot read() -- you can only getvalue() the full contents so far

Once the StringIO object is close()d, the contents are gone

not usually a problem, as most save functions either take a filename and does an open()-write()-close() (in which case stringio is fairly irrelevant), or take a file object and just write() (in which case you're fine)

(could apparently also take unicode, but most people use it for bytes?)

StringIO was a python implementation in its standard library, cStringIO was a faster C implementation and drop-in, so you'ld often see

try: # use the faster extension when we can
    import cStringIO as StringIO
except: # drop back to python's own when we must
    import StringIO

Python3 changes

Since bytestrings are now called bytes and not str, the same functionality is now in

io.BytesIO

which behaves the same way

though BytesIO also lets you have a read-write view[5]

which py2 did not[6]

Python3 also has has a similar thing for unicode strings.

io.TextIOWrapper is a seekable, file-like object, that also implies some conversions

io.StringIO, which is basically a binary unicode representation

https://docs.python.org/3/library/io.html

Python notes - syntax and language - changes and py2/3

Contents

On preparing for and doing the conversion to py3

Differences in syntax and behaviour in 2.6, 3k

Networking changes

Py2 versus Py3 string stuff

print

Console and locale details

Paths

Consider pathlib

IO

Bytes and strings around file IO

misc

Type annotation

StringIO, and now BytesIO

Navigation menu

Views

Personal tools

Navigation

Search

Tools