View source for Doughs, batters, leaveners

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=Leavening agents=

'''Leavening''' and '''raising'''/'''rising''' refers to getting food to be airy via gas. 

Often refers specifically to doughs, and food made with them. 
Examples include muffins, some cakes, and such.


Contrasted with getting airy producs via layers, see e.g. [[puff pastry|puff]] and [[phyllo pastry]])


===Rising with yeast===
{{stub}}


{{info|baking is an art ''and'' a science, this is at best a broad introduction}}


Most yeast you can buy is a fairly direct product of growing the organism - often {{Latinname|Saccharomyces Cerevisiae}}.


Yeast will [[ferment]] [[sugar]]s to [[alcohol]] and CO<sub>2</sub>. {{comment|(it can also ferment starches, if there are ''also'' enzymes around to break them down into sugar)}}

In baking you mostly care about the CO<sub>2</sub>, as it forms the bubbles that make the dough rise and be light rather than brick-like. Both these products will be gone by the end of baking.



Rising with yeast needs 
* '''water''' 
:: in part to activate the yeast (for most yeast sources, anyway)
:: also because wetter doughs are more flexible so can rise a little more

* '''time and heat''' - temperature relates a lot to rising speed
:: Apparently yeast starts to work when it is not frozen
:: fridge rising is meant to be slow (and more flavourful (how?)
:: a one-or-two-hour rise is easier at room temperature ~25C (78F) or a little higher
::: in part to avoid the release of glutathione, since that makes for sticky doughs, so you may wish to aim around ~35C (~100F)
:: yeast dies above ~55C (130F)
:: closing the container (includes use of bread machines for dough mixing) helps too (why?{{verify}})


* '''salt''' isn't strictly necessary, but it is functional. 
:: it helps the rising 
::: be a little more even (due to it slowing down the fermentation) 
::: be a little more firm (in part because it coagualates gluten{{verify}})
:: adding the salt ''later'' changes the consistency - e.g used in sourdough; see {{search|delayed salt method}}
:: too much salt will impede rising (due to reverse osmosis {{verify}})
:: too much sugar also impedes rising (both are hygroscopic), salt is just better at stopping it
:: ...so you want to avoid 
::: all the concentration of sugar and salt meeting the yeast immediately, so you may mix them separately (in bread machines it can be enough to add them to different corners, so that the kneading mixes them)


Other things that impede rising include fat, eggs, dairy.




'''Baker's yeast''' refers to any used in baking, including:

* '''Active dry yeast''' (granular, looks larger than instant) needs to be activated
:: activating refers to mixing it with a little room-temperature (or perhaps lukewarm) water (hotter will kill it) before adding it to your dough. {{comment|(You don't need sugar to ''activate'' it - it'll get some soon enough in the dough.)}}

* '''Instant yeast''' (granular, finer, like tiny sticks) 
:: doesn't need the water step, it will activate fast enough when it is mixed into the dough.

* '''Rapid-rise yeast''' is instant yeast plus some additives to make rising happen faster.

* {{comment|'''Compressed yeast''', a dense clay-like stuff with most liquid removed, is easy to use but has a shorter shelf life than the others, so is mainly interesting for professional bakers.}}

* {{comment|'''Cream yeast''' refers to that tapped from actively grown, useful in industrial baking but not to smaller cases.}}


Other yeasts include
* {{comment|'''Nutritional yeast'''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritional_yeast] - deactivated yeast, a useful source of protein and vitamins. It has a strongish taste, so beyond uses as a healthy ingredient in vegetarian food, it is also sometimes used as a condiment.}}

* {{comment|'''Brewer's yeast''' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast#Beer] often a different species (but same strain), more useful at lower temperatures{{verify}}, but there's a lot of variation.}}

===Baking soda, baking powder, and self-rising flour===

{{comment|(See also other things referred to as [[soda]])}}


Baking soda and baking powder are leaveners - they both produce CO2, which effectively inflates your dough.

They are useful where you don't like to use yeast(+sugar), e.g. to avoid a yeasty fermented taste, or because yeast doesn't store as well, or for some doughs that you cook quickly, and/or are denser.


'''Baking soda''' is pure sodium bicarbonte (NaHCO<sub>3</sub>).

Above 80C it decomposes into sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), water, and CO<sub>2</sub>.

Typically it is combined with something acidic {{comment|(e.g. milk, yoghurt, honey, lemon juice, chocolate because cocoa, though note that [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_process_chocolate Dutched] cocoa is ''not'' acidic)}}, because because that produces additional CO<sub>2</sub>, so a stronger leavening effect. This reaction starts fairly quickly and does not last as long as some other leaveners, so you get more effect baking sooner. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_bicarbonate#Leavening]


'''Baking powder''' is basically baking soda plus such an acidifying (e.g. [[cream of tartar]]) - and maybe a drying agent (usually [[starch]]), maybe an anti-caking something. We can consider baking soda the most active ingredient, though the rest may regulate baking and affect taste. 

'''Single-acting baking powder''' are activated by moisture, so you need to bake soonish after mixing.

'''Double-acting baking powder''' is slower, activated a little by moisture but mostly by heat - so ''can'' sit a little longer before baking.

In many situations you can use any of these, but one may be more convenient. For example, when there is nothing acidic in there, the recipe will have called for baking powder rather than baking soda.

Assume that baking powder slowly loses effectiveness before its best-by date.



'''Self-rising flour''' is baking powder added to plain flour.

Depending on where you live, this can be common or not, and in some areas and/or stores stores may typically also contain additives like salt, lemon, vanilla, or or such tastes because it is meant as a quick basis for cookies and such.

Self-rising flour can be convenient for certain doughs, particularly faster bakes like cookies and cakes.

People used to planning their rises, e.g. as in baking bread, won't have much use for self-rising flour, as this primarily happens in the first minutes of cooking, activated by moisture + heat. 

Also, mixing yeast and baking powder (/self rising flour) will inhibit the yeast's rise due to the baking powder's non-neutral pH{{verify}}.

===Mechanical leavening===

The above refer to chemical leavening, to counting on a chemical reaction that produces a gas, often CO<sub>2</sub>

Mechanical leavening mostly refers to leavening that happens due to water turning into steam.
For which it has to be caught in the first place. See e.g. puff pastry.

=Flour=


==Sources and contents==
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'''Flour''' is a general term, which can refer to '''any powder from cereal grains, seeds, or roots'''.


'''Cereals''' are members of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poaceae a family of grasses] that are cultivated for the edible components of its grain. The category is very wide, including {{comment|(in no particular order)}} wheat, rice, millet, maize, spelt, durum, barley, rye, and many more.

'''Gluten''' is a specific protein composite found in a good number of cereals, including wheat and various related grains (barley, rye, others). 



Cereals generally consist of {{comment|(from the outside inwards, and ignoring the chaff as humans do not digest it)}}
* '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bran bran]''' - the outer protective layer.
** Nutritionally: contains carbohydrates, high in protein, some fat, fiber, vitamins

* '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosperm endosperm]''' - the food for you or the germ
** most of a grain, by volume and mass
** Nutritionally: mostly carbohydrates (starch), plus some protein. Little of the things the germ and bran have.

* '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal_germ germ]''' - the embryo, the part that can grow into a plant, a nutrient-rich but small core
** Nutritionally: contains carbohydrates, protein, fat, fiber, vitamins



'''Whole grain''' means most things are still in there, so has more taste, and is a better source of protein, fats, oils, and some vitamins and minerals.  Whole grains can generally be sprouted.


'''Refined''' means mostly just the endosperm, so is primarily carbohydrates, making it smoother but less nutritious.
The bran and germ have been mechanically separated. Further steps may include bleaching, brominating. 
For example, general-purpose flour is typically fairly refined.


'''Enriched''' refers to taking refined grains and adding (back) some nutrition back in, making it more nutritious than refined but often still less than the original whole grain.


Refined and enriched grains have a longer shelf life, but less taste and nutrition.
<!--
In a few cases, refined grains have more directly usable energy content ().
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There are further differences and details, some of which can matter to specific diets.

<!--
"Bleached" flour has been whitened.

"Matured" flour affects the gluten development positively ''or'' negatively.


Cake flour - lower gluten content, to make for easier crumbling

Pastry flour - low gluten content, low ash content

Bread flour - depends too much on location?

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===Flour rating===
{{stub}}

Beyond source, you may also care about specific properties of the milling.


{{zzz|There is no international standard|
: varied EU countries each have their own local standards  (seemingly the ones who care more about their baking or bread, e.g. Italy, France, Germany),
: some countries just use someone else's system (or even multiple)
: various countries without a rating system at all (and tend to not give the ash content either)
:: many of which have a [[nutrition label]] must still specify the protein content, which is still a decent indication of other things (roughly correlated with ash content)
:: many of which have local names that have ''relatively'' steady meanings

...which are all correlated, but you can often have one without the other, so habits choosing your flour based on just one is may serve you perfectly in one country, yet '''won't translate directly to another system/country'''.

The focus on different aspects of flour means various ratings (which may be strictly specced in specific documents)
''cannot'' be directly translated.

At the same time, there is not a wild amount of difference, 
and arguably But arguably, ash content is the most useful exactly because it is least specific - it 
indicates there is ''something'' else in there, and lets you figure out the details.}}



Of particular interest is '''ash content''' here is intended in the analytical chemistry sense of determining non-compustible contents: we burning a fixed amount of flour, and weigh what is left (the ash) - which will be things like minerals, germ, bran.
This mostly indicates the parts that ''aren't'' the carbohydrate bulk, so is a decent indication of nutritious part.

Different systems highlight/measure 
* ash content (amount of noncombustible ingredients),
* grind size
* amount of product per amount of input (extraction rate)
* protein content


TODO: mention just some common types, not all the list, of respective systems.


For some ''approximate'' conversions, this is a merger of wikipedia and [https://www.weekendbakery.com/posts/understanding-flour-types/comment-page-2/ this], and note '''this is approximate'''
 DE     FR    IT         ash       NL               UK               US
 405    45    00         0.4%      zeeuwse bloem    soft flour       pastry flour
 550    55    0          0.55%     patentbloem      plain flour      all-purpose
 812    80    1           0.8%     tarwebloem       strong/hard      high gluten
 1700  150    integale   >1.5%     volkorenmeel     wholemeal        whole wheat


<!--

Even what you mean with 'all-purpose' seems to vary, 
e.g. italians seem to prefer somewhat softer

Pizza 

There are 
Lower ash rating is ''correlated'' with lower protein
: but not a direct indication

Lower ash rating is also correlated with grind size.
: but not a direct indication

Lower ash rating is also correlated with amount of product per amount of input
: but not a direct indication



TODO: further ratings people care about 


Lower ash rating is considered/marketed more refined and purer,
though is also less nutritious.

Say, the lowest ash rating is considered pastry flour,
while all-purpose-flour is also relatively low,
while e.g. whole wheat has a high ash rating





Italian

Type “00”
Type “0”
Type “1”
Type “2”


French

Wheat
Type “45” 
Tyoe “55” 
Type “65” 
Type “80” 
Type “110” 
Type “150” 

RYE 
Type “70”
Tyoe “85”
Type “130”
Type “170” 




German (DIN 10335{{verify}})

Wheat
405 
550 
812 
1050
1600

Durum semolina 
1600

Spelt
630
812
1050

Rye
815
997
1150
1370
1740



Argentina - seems to indicate the fineness of milling

0

00

000

0000


Australia

0

00

000




Austria

Semolina, Wheat W 480
Baking Flour    W 700
Bread Flour     W 1600
Wholemeal wheat
Superior rye flour R 500
Rye flour          R 960 
Dark rye flour     R 2500


Switzerland (SLMB 2004)

TODO



Poland (PN-A-74022, PN-A-74032{{verify}}) range from type 450 to 2000.[35]
: also used in Germany, Romania, more

Wheat

Type “450” 
Type “550” 
Type “650” 
Type “750” 
Type “1050” 
Type “1400” 
Type “1850” 
Type “2000” 

Rye

Type “500” 15% 0,58
Tyoe “720” 15% 0,59 0,78
Type “1150” 15% 0,79 1,30
Type “1400” 15% 1,31 1,60
Type “2000” 

...but product-wise, e.g. Romania seems to mostly see 650, 550, 000 (which seems like another system?

 

Czechia

US

UK

Japan

China





-->

==Product variants==

When going by baking '''purpose''', it is the '''protein content''' that is usually most interesting. Also starch.

Which relates to whole/refined, and also the type of cereal.


Your basic supermarket flour will be refined/enriched.

The simple/cheap bread (depending a little on where you live) is typically also made from refined/enriched wheat.
White bread is the most obvious example, being bleached. Much of the browner bread is also mostly the refined sort - with more ingredients (browning is often done with sugar), but rarely made from whole wheat or having the nutrition of whole wheat bread{{verify}}.



'''Higher-protein flour''' makes for things you have to chew on, so is often used for pasta, bread, pizza dough, and such.

'''Lower-protein flour''', also '''cake flour''', makes for crumblier results so is used for cakes, cookies, pie crust, and such. 
* Note that '''self-rising flour''' is typically low-protein.
** straight flour - wheat flour from primarily its endosperm (the inside of wheat), so containing fewer branny bits, and impurities
*** patent flour - ground finer than general wheat flour. Short, medium, and long patent refers to the amount of straight flour used
*** clear flour - basically everything except the patent flour product: the bran and the bit of endosperm stills stuck to it. Typically looks dark.

'''Pastry flour''' serves a goal somewhere inbetween -- too much protein and it can be too tough, too little and it can be too brittle.


Specific-purpose variations (such as pastry flour) are often wheat-based, but not only.

'''Noodle flour''' can refer can refer to various blends, often involving wheat or rice.

Pasta can also be made from various types, but it too typically involves wheat.



A bunch of flour types:

* '''Wheat flour''', as in flour from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat Wheat] ({{translation|tarwebloem|nl}}) is usually the default thing that 'flour' refers to in Europe, North America, Middle East and North Africa, simply because it's the most common flour.
** Note that there is still variation in wheat itself, e.g. in gluten content

* '''Rye flour''' - used for many [[sour doughs]]

* '''Corn / Maize''' - somewhat confusing as naming varies
** UK: '''polenta''' / US: '''corn meal''': essentially larger bits of corn than corn flour / corn starch
** '''Cornstarch''' - the refined variant
** '''cornflour''' is sometimes the refined cornstarch, sometimes a less refined variant
:: ...I suggest you figure out yourself which is which in your area, by size and texture

* '''Buckwheat flour''' - used in american pancakes, japanese soba noodles, 

* '''Potato starch flour''' - 

* '''Tapioca flour''' - 

* '''Almond flour''' - one useful option for those with gluten allerties, though somewhat hard to digest

* '''[[Chickpea]] flour''', a.k.a. '''gram flour''' , '''besan''' - 

* '''Atta flour''' - 

* '''Bean flour''' - 

* '''Rice flour''' - 
* '''Brown rice flour''' - 
* '''Glutinous rice flour''' - 

* '''Peasemeal''' / '''pea flour''' - 

* '''Peanut flour''' - 

* '''Mesquite flour''' - 

* '''Maida flour''' - 

* '''Amaranth flour''' -

* '''Cassava flour''' - 

* '''Chestnut flour''' - 

* '''Chuño flour''' - 

* '''Pecan flour'''




See also:
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour#Flour_type_numbers

* http://www.pasta-recipes-made-easy.com/pasta-flour.html

=Dough=

Dough tends to refer to flour ready for use - you added water, and it's starting to rise/leaven/ferment (if applicable).

Each particular use (bread-like food, pancakes, noodles, and such) comes with its fine-tuning instructions and hints. 


===Bread dough===

Flour, water (or sometimes milk), salt, yeast, and a little sugar for the yeast.

* Dutch: Brooddeeg


===Pizza dough===
{{stub}}

Most pizza doughs resemble bread doughs, though often tweaked - e.g. for tenderness, less rising, shorter baking time, and lower baking temperature.


Notes:
* often relatively white-bread doughs, to avoid it being more filling than what's on top
: ...though some may use a higher-gluten flour, for more chewiness

* some are relatively lean doughs, e.g. omitting sugar and/or oil (so flour+water+salt+yeast)
: these will have long (and often cold) ferment/rise times, due to the yeast working more on starches

* some have the same ingredients as bread doughs, but e.g. have
: more oil than sugar/salt - tends to be more tender (and need more time to rise) {{verify}}
: more sugar - tends to be more browned (at lower temperatures) {{verify}}
: more water - less crispy, more forgiving {{verify}}

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http://slice.seriouseats.com/archives/2012/07/the-pizza-lab-three-doughs-to-know.html
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===Choux pastry===

Associated with pastries, such as eclairs and profiterole and harder-to-spell things,
it's a fairly simple mix: flour, butter, water, and eggs.

Does not rise (in the produces-CO2 way), but most variants do expand as the water content becomes steam while baking.


===Shortcrust pastry===

A sweet dough often used for pies and tarts (sweet or savory).

Savory pies and quiche is often made with something between basic/bread dough and pastry crust.


Does not puff up.

Sugar, butter, flour.

Mixing in a more sensible order can make your life a lot simpler. In particular, add liquids only after the basic three ingredients are well mixed.

Too much kneading will make the product too tough for many purposes (because of the gluten).

After mixing and kneading it helps to store the dough in the fridge to stiffen the butter.


Proportions vary. One variant is 1:2:3 (respectively)


More butter makes for more delicate

More sugar (sweetcrust) is sweeter, and more brittle.



In various languages:
* Dutch: Zanddeeg / boterdeeg

See also:
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortcrust_pastry




===Puff pastry===

Layered and light, made by folding and rolling, with some fat between layers.

Related to phyllo, which uses less fat (recipes often call for adding fat).


The airy layers originate from mechanical leavening by the water turning into steam.


Must be kept relatively cold while making, to avoid the shortening becoming runny.
It also needs rest between folds to allow gluten to 




In various languages:
* Dutch: Bladerdeeg, Korstdeeg

See also:
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puff_pastry

===Phyllo===

'''Phyllo''', a.k.a. '''Filo'' and '''Fillo'''  is thin layered dough.

No leavening agent is used, and while there is ''some'' mechanical leavening, it's much less than e.g. puff pastry.


Phyllo is named for [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phyllo#Etymology being leafy]



In various languages:
* English: Phyllo, philo
* Dutch: Filodeeg

See also:
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phyllo

===Biscuit dough===

In various languages:
* Dutch: Biscuitdeeg


===Cookie dough===
<!--
Other things that impede rising include fat, eggs, dairy.
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=Batter=

(Semi-)liquid mixture of flours, water (or other liquid(s)), milk or eggs, and possibly a leavening agent.

<!--
Carbonated water or another carbonated liquid such as
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Various pancakes, crêpes, waffles, tempura, fritters, as well as some cakes and donuts are made largely from batter.

In various languages:
* Dutch: Beslag

=See also=
* [[Rice]]

* http://www.smulweb.nl/158464/artikel/Deeg-soorten
* http://www.coquinaria.nl/recepten/deeg.htm
* http://www.baking911.com/bread/101_intro.htm

Also:
* http://home.comcast.net/~osoono/ethnic-doughs.htm



[[Category:Cooking]]